India boosts rare earth production

Realising the dangers of a Chinese monopoly, countries like India, Japan and Vietnam have started collaborating on REEs, with India pushing through production at Odisha and Vizag.

Author: Shivom Seth
Posted: Monday , 10 Sep 2012

MUMBAI (MINEWEB) -

As China tightens the noose on rare earth exports, India is to soon put into operation its 10,000 tonnes Monazite processing plant in the eastern state of Odisha. The coastal stretch in Bramhagiri in Odisha's Puri district is the second area where the mineral deposits have been found in the state. Previously, deposits have been found in the coastal areas of the Ganjam district.

Indian Rare Earths, which has bagged permission to mine rare earths in the coastal stretch, has taken a lease and is looking to mine around 2,500 hectares.

The Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research, Hyderabad, a constituent unit under India's Department of Atomic Energy, had conducted a survey and found huge deposits of rare earths minerals in the coastal stretch of Puri.

Indian Rare Earths has been mining and separating heavy minerals like ilmenite, rutile, zircon, silimanite, garnet and monazite from beach sands which are high in demand domestically as well as for exports. These minerals are used in the manufacture of white pigment, ceramics, polishing glass and TV tubes.

There is another 12,000 tonne Monazite processing plant near Vizag, the second largest city in Andhra Pradesh, and a major sea port, which is being set up with Toyota's help. The area is expected to yield high purity RE oxides, including Neodymium, that is used in permanent magnets.

"The Odisha plant could be commissioned by December. We will carry out dry runs, and hopefully, start production early next year,'' said R N Patra, chairman, Indian Rare Earths Limited.

Set up at an investment of $25 million (Rs 1.4 billion), around 2,250 tonnes of RE will be separated at Indian Rare Earth's Aluva facility in Kerala for domestic consumption, while the rest will be exported.

Patra added that from a standing start, India would be able to achieve 4% of global production.

The company has managed to mine around 35% of the leased area so far of the 2,400 hectares that has been taken on lease, and separated the heavy minerals from the sand.

China stranglehold

China, the world's largest rare earth exporter, reduced its export quotas for the minerals. Though China commands a 97% global monopoly on various stages of rare earth production, US Geological Survey estimates that China has half of the world's reserves at 55 million tonnes.

Though India is unlikely to be able to catch up with China's rare earth export volume, the new plant in Odisha is expected to produce 11,000 metric tonnes of rare earth materials a year.

India is planning to increase its output three fold by 2017. Given the dangers of Chinese monopoly, countries like India, Japan and Vietnam have already started collaborating in REEs, with the expectation that more than 15% of rare earth minerals could be mined outside of China by the end of this decade.

Vietnam is known to have significant rare earth reserves and by collaborating with Japan, is expected to make significant inroads in this field. India has regularly attributed RE reserve figures of 2-3%. Latest Indian government statistics, however, show India may well have 9% of global RE reserves at 10.7 million tonnes.

The stranglehold by China upset many producers in India. As Indian Rare Earths Patra said, "We were producing oxide of RE Cerium at a price of $10.83 (Rs 600) per kilo. China was providing the same for $1.5 per kilo.''

Cheap rare earth from China also forced closure at the world's largest rare earth mine Mountain Pass, in California, he added.

Patra said though in 2007, the company had pointed out the urgency to restart RE production to the Indian government, it was denied permission since the Thorium from Monazite was the only interesting aspect at that time.

Today, the Indian government is making a concerted effort to identify potential RE reserves in India. The country is also exploring joint development of REs with Japan and other nations.

http://www.mineweb.com/mineweb/view/mineweb/en/page151201?oid=158406&sn=Detail&pid=151201

See: http://www.docstoc.com/docs/131324410/IREL-Presentation-(Dr-RN-Patra)

Strategic Value Addition

Recovery from thorium value Chemical processing of monazite to separate the contained thorium value (~8% ThO2) in the form of thorium hydroxide concentrate happen to be the most fundamental value addition activity of the company carried out for last 50 years or so. In the recent time thorium is separated as its pure oxalate form. A part of it is taken to OSCOM for its further processing by solvent extraction to produce about 150-200 TPA of its thorium nitrate for its mantle application. A small part of the purified thorium nitrate is covered to nuclear grade thorium oxide powder to meet the requirement of Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) and Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC) for developing thorium based fuel for our nuclear reactors. Recovery of Uranium value.

Recovery of Uranium value.

In recent time IREL has got engaged through its Rare Earths Division, in activity involving recovery of uranium value present in Indian monazite in the form of Nuclear grade ammonium diuranate (ADU) to supplement the indigenous supply scenario for uranium as required in the Indian Nuclear Power programme. In addition to monazite, RED has developed facilities for recovering uranium value from other secondary resource as well. http://www.irel.gov.in/scripts/Strategic_Value.asp

Non Strategic Value Addition

The first non-strategic value addition activities of IREL in tonnage quantities was concerned with production of composite rare earth chloride, oxide and fluoride to start and later separation of 99.9% pure oxide of individual rare earths like Ce, La, Nd and Pr by multi-stage solvent extraction and fractional precipitation techniques. Oxides of these metal in higher purities are also prepared by RED in kilo gramme quantities using ion exchange technology.

Besides chemical processing of monazite both zircon and ilmenite were found worth value addition from commercial angle.

A dry grindin mill working on the principal of self attrition was commissioned by Chavara in the year 1970 to grind the as separation zircon sand to about 4.5m size(called zirflour) for its application in the ceramic industries. Much later a wet mill with silica as grinding media was commissioned at Chavara to introduced yet another value added material called micro-zir having mesh size in the range of 1 to 3 mm finding specialized application as opacifier. In addition to such physical value addition, the MK unit had set up a small chemical plant to produce zircon frit, zirconium chloride etc. The plant, however, is limited in size and meant primarily for making supply of zircon firt to Nuclear Fuel Complex, Hydrabad. In yet another effort on value addition to zircon, a pilot plant(capacity-3.5 TPA) was set up OSCOM to produce a whole range of zirconia stabilized with CaO, MgO and rare earths.

The most talked about value addition activity of IREL is setting up of a Chemical plant at OSCOM consisting of a Synthetic Rutile Production unit an Acid Regeneration Unit. The SR ficility is equipped with two roasters, two calciners, sixteen digestors for carrying out reduction of ilmenite, leaching of reduced ilmenite with concentrated hydrocloric acid. The leached liquor is treated in the AR unit to regenerate 20% grade HCl for its recycle and reject iron as fine iron oxide powder. The SR unit was stopped in 1997 as it was not financially viable. The company now intends to use the roasters and calciners for the production of partially value added materials like reduced and metallized ilmenite.

	Activity

	Safety & Environment

	R & D Facility

	Mining & Mineral

	Strategic Value


	Non Strategic Value

http://www.irel.gov.in/scripts/Non_Strategic_Value.asp

http://www.irel.gov.in/scripts/products.asp

Fuel Reprocessing

The Fuel Reprocessing Plants at Trombay, Tarapur and Kalpakkam operated satisfactorily. A facility for the separation of uranium-233 from thorium rods irradiated at CIRUS and DHRUVA reactors approached completion and revamping of PREFRE Plant at Tarapur continued.

IGCAR’s Lead Mini Cell (LMC), a demonstration facility for reprocessing of FBTR fuel on laboratory scale, reached advanced stage of completion. The safety and commissioning reports have been under review by the AERB’s Safety Review Committee for Operating Plants (SARCOP). Work on Fast Reactor Fuel Reprocessing Plant (FRFRP) also progressed. Various equipment reached the site. The process vessels, which are under fabrication are expected soon.

At Uranium-233 Extraction Plant, hot commissioning works related to the second campaign of uranium-233 extraction from thorium rods, were completed. Uranium-233 was extracted and converted to oxide form successfully.

Source: http://www.dae.nic.in/?q=node/178

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

DEPARTMENT OF ATOMIC ENERGY

RAJYA SABHA

UNSTARRED QUESTION NO.2729

TO BE ANSWERED ON 19.08.2010

ACTIVITIES OF INDIAN RARE EARTHS

2729. SHRI K.N. BALAGOPAL:

Will the PRIME MINISTER be pleased to state:

(a) the major activities of Indian Rare Earths (IRE) units situated in Kollam, Kerala;

(b) the total income of IRE from sand mining from Kerala operations;

(d) if so, the details of the products; and

(e) whether Government would start production units to develop value added products from rare earth available in Kerala?

ANSWER

THE MINISTER OF STATE FOR SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY AND EARTH SCIENCES (INDEPENDENT CHARGE), PMO, PERSONNEL, PUBLIC GRIEVANCES AND PENSIONS AND PARLIAMENTARY AFFAIRS.

(SHRI PRITHVIRAJ CHAVAN):

(a) Indian Rare Earths, a Public Sector Undertaking under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) produces ilmenite, rutile, leucoxene, zircon, sillimanite etc. in their minerologically pure marketable forms from beach sand in its unit situated in Kollam Kerala. Part of the zircon is used for production of zirflour which is used in ceramic industry.

(b) Total income from IRE sand mining from Kerala operation was Rs. 9267.14 lakh in the year 2009-10.

(d) The value added products which can be produced from ilmenite are synthetic rutile, titanium slag, titanium sponge, titanium pigment and various titanium chemicals. Rutile & Leucoxene can be used directly to produce titanium sponge, titanium pigment and various titanium chemicals. The value added products that can be produced from Zircon are zirflour, microzir, zirconium metal and various zirconium chemicals.

(e) Yes, Sir.

******http://www.dae.nic.in/writereaddata/rs190810.pdf#page=3 .

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

DEPARTMENT OF ATOMIC ENERGY

RAJYA SABHA

UNSTARRED QUESTION NO.3880

TO BE ANSWERED ON 08.09.2011

RARE EARTH RESERVES IN COUNTRY

3880. SHRI ANIL MADHAV DAVE:

Will the PRIME MINISTER be pleased to state:

(a) the potential rare earth reserves in India;

(b) the details thereof, mineral-wise;

(d) whether Government has collaborated with foreign countries/companies for processing and extraction of rare earth in India; and

(e) if so, the details thereof?

ANSWER

THE MINISTER OF STATE FOR PERSONNEL, PUBLIC GRIEVANCES & PENSIONS AND IN THE PRIME MINISTER’S OFFICE (SHRI V. NARAYANASAMY)

(a)&(b) Monazite is the principal source of rare earths in India. As per the report of Atomic Mineral Directorate for Exploration & Research (AMDER). Hyderabad, a constituent unit under the Department of Atomic Energy, the reserves of Monazite in India is about 10 million tons which translates to approx. 5 million tons of rare earth oxide.

(c) Since, April 2004 there is no production of rare earths from Monazite source at the rare earths division of Indian Rare Earths Limited, a Public Sector Undertaking under the Department of Atomic Energy.

(d) No, Sir.

(e) Does not arise.

*********http://www.dae.nic.in/writereaddata/rsus3880_080911.pdf

V.V MINERAL

NEED OF NUCLEAR POWER

In the last three decades, consumption of electricity has been increasing in India at the rate of around 10% per annum. Starting with a meager 2300 MW in 1950, the installed capacity by March 2001 has risen to around 102 GW. Of this 25% is met by hydro, 72% by thermal power, based on coal and about 3 % by nuclear energy. India is a country occupying 2% of the world's landmass and currently generating about 3% of the global electricity. However India has a share of 16% in the world's population. To achieve a moderately high level of economic growth, the domestic electricity generation capacity needs to be increased manifold.

Through coal reserves in India are estimated to be nearly 13,000 crore tonnes, most of them are confined to a limited region in eastern and Central India. Nearly 35% of the country by area and 30% by population are more than 800 km away from coalfields. Hence, there are practical limits in transporting coal to thermal power stations located in the Western, Southern and Northern parts of India (apart from limitations on production). The total hydroelectric potential that can be economically exploited has been estimated to be about 41000 MW. Of this 25400 MW capacity is under operation. The non-conventional energy resources like solar, wind and tidal are all diffused sources of energy suitable for decentralized application. However, these sources are unlikely to meet more than a small fraction of our energy needs for many years.

Nuclear power is one source, if given impetus, can generate electricity at costs competitive with coal-fired power stations in certain location. A tonne of uranium fed into the nuclear power station produces as much heat as about 25,000 tonnes of coal taken over the life times of the stations, the low fuelling cost of nuclear stations out weights the higher cost of building them.

One important advantage of nuclear power is that it avoids a wide variety of environmental problems arising from burning fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas. The problems that have received the most publicity have been 'global warming', which is changing the earth's climate, acid rain, which is destroying forests and killing fish; air pollution, which is killing tens of thousands of people every year; the destructive effects of massive mining for coal and oil spills which do great harm to ecological systems. http://www.nfc.gov.in/html-products.htm

Mining & Minerals

Mining of raw beach sand containing the six heavy minerals and separation of the later in adequate purities happen to be the common activity of all the three Mineral Division namely Chavara, MK and OSCOM. As per as mining practice is concerned, they do differ from one division to other. For example at MK, all the raw sand required to operate the plant at its full capacity is collected by the fisherman of surrounding villages from near by beaches and supplied to the unit at a cost. At Chavara also beach washing is available but not in adequate quantity to meet the full requirement of the plant.

The unit therefore adopt wet mining operation involving use of Dredge and Wet Concentrator(DWC) to exploit the inland deposits away from the beaches. For example Chavara operate two DWC s of about 100 t/hr capacities to generate sand feed analyzing about 85% heavy mineral concentration.

The mineral free sand coming out of the concentrator is pumped back to the pond for the operation of DWC. In the case of OSCOM, the entire mining operations involves dredging of the mineral deposits on much larger scale (500 t/hr) augmented by smaller sized (~100) supplementary.

The heavy mineral rich sand feed either in the form of beach washings or dredge concentrate is subjected to final concentration in a facility provided with a host of spirals to enrich the feed with 97-98% heavy minerals. Such upgraded material is next dried in a fluid bed drier to take on the separation of individual minerals/ores by taking advantage of the difference in their electrical, magnetic properties as well as specific gravity.

http://www.irel.gov.in/scripts/Mining_Mineral.asp

Products
	Minerals Ilmenite Brown Ilemnite Ilmenite 'MK' Grade Ilmenite 'OR' Grade Ilmenite 'Q' Grade Garnet Garnet 'MK' Grade (Normal) Garnet 'OR' Grade Monazite 'MK' Grade Rutile Rutile 'MK' Grade Rutile 'OR' Grade Rutile 'Q' Grade Sillimanite Sillimanite 'OR' Grade Sillimaie 'Q' Grade Zircon Zircon Sand 'MK' Grade Zircon Sand 'Q' Grade Zircon 'OR' Grade Zirflor (Zircon flour) Re-Compounds Cerium Hydrate (Dry) Cerium Oxide (CeO2) Cerium Nitrate (Gas Mantle Grade) Cerium Hydrate (Wet) Didyium Carbonate (Wet) Neodymium Oxide (Nd2O3) Rare Earths Chloride Rare Earths Fluoride Rare Earths Fluoride - Powder Rare Earths Carbonate (Dry) Thorium Nitrate Thorium Oxide Trisodium Phosphate Uses

V. V. Mineral is the first company in India to have been conferred the 'Export House' status for export of heavy minerals issued by the Development Commissioner, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India.

Since 1990, VVM has been continuously receiving prestigious awards and recognition from various chambers of commerce and industry, and the government.

VVM are the winners of 'Special Export Award' from CAPEXIL (Chemicals & Allied Products Export Promotion Council, which functions under the auspices of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India) consecutively for the past 16 years (from 1990- '91 to 2006- 07).

VVM has got the 'No. 1 Garnet Exporter Award' issued by the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Tuticorin from last 9 years.

VVM is the proud recipient of the coveted 'National Productivity Award' for the year 1999- 2000 from the National Productivity Council, New Delhi – which was received from the Hon’ble Vice President of India. V.V. Mineral got the following awards from Government of Tamilnadu and other reputed organizations for its sterling export performance:

' Excellence Award ' from Department of Industries and Commerce for the years 1990- '91, 1993- '94

' Certificate Of Excellence For Traffic Performance ' from Tuticorin Port Trust during the years 1993-'94 and 1995- '96

' Certificate Of Export Recognition ' from Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Tuticorin for four consecutive years from 1993- '94 to 2006-07.

' Export Award ' from Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry for the years 1995, 1996 – 2006-07.

VVM got the “MADITSSIA – VISVESWARAYA AWARD” 5 times for best organization and industry in the Southern District of TAMILNADU.

Special-Export-Award

A special award bestowed upon the top-ranking export house that excels in all aspects of exporting norms. The award is superior to other awards such as "Certificate of Merit".

Recognised Approvals

Corporate Member of :	Quality Certificate from :	Quality Certificate from :

SSPC Society for Protective Coatings	ISO 9001	ARBC California Air Resource Board

2. We are an one of the Corporate Membership on SSPC. The Society for protective Coatings - Organizational Membership Seals.

3. The Saudi Aramco also approved our products for various applications

http://www.vvmineral.com/achievement.htm

V.V. Mineral is the only company in India with a 15km stretch of beach area under a mining lease for 40 years. This ensures a continuous deposition of placer minerals from the Gulf of Mannar. The gulf's geological characteristics, typical wave action and beach structure make it a highly valuable zone for continuous deposition of heavy minerals like Garnet, Ilmenite, Rutile and Zircon. Another 2,300 acres of heavy minerals-rich land add to our total annual output of 150,000 metric tonnes of garnet ,2,25,000 metric tonnes of ilmenite, 12000 M.Tons of Zircon and 5000 M.Tons of Rutile. India has the largest mineral sand resources in the world. These are also among the least exploited resources and have a high potential to meet the world's immediate need for titanium dioxide. India has a resource of 278 million tons of the 460 million tons of the world's known reserves.
It is estimated that approximately half of this is available for mining and that the deposits generally contain 20-30% heavy minerals, which is considered high grade by world standards.
Mining Areas of VV Minerals as located by GPS


Satellite Image showing the Mineral Deposists in Southern Peninsular India


India has the largest mineral sand resources in the world. These are also among the least exploited resources and have a high potential to meet the world's immediate need for titanium dioxide. India has a resource of 278 million tons of the 460 million tons of the world's known reserves. It is estimated that approximately half of this is available for mining and that the deposits generally contain 20-30% heavy minerals, which is considered high grade by world standards.

http://www.vvmineral.com/mining.htm

Ilmenite is a placer mineral found only in some parts of the world. It has a great demand for many industries for its utilities vary from pigment industry to steel industry. Over 96% of the world wide use of Ilmenite are in titanium dioxide TiO2 form that has a wide range of strategic applications. The chief ores of Titanium are Ilmenite and Rutile, which is again a derivative of Ilmenite.

They appear in various shape and sizes but generally they are square shaped and tubular in form. Their corners are rounded / flattened but they are mostly euhedral to subhedral in nature.

V.V. Mineral Started production of Ilmenite in early 2000 in anticipation of the granting of the export license and our first Ilmenite was delivered to our customer in October 2000.

The production capacity now stands at 225,000 metric tonnes per year and is expected to rise steadily as market conditions allow.

We currently produce several grades of high quality sulphateable Ilmenite which are becoming increasingly sought after due to their ideal characteristics of good digestibility combined with low contained U, Th, Cr2O3 etc.,

Currently we have six processing plants in operation and have proposed to setup two more plants, which allows us to provide a greater degree of product flexibility than generally available from traditional mineral sands operations.

With our first shipment we have set records in loading at Tuticorin Port breaking records set four years back. We have loaded 4,700 tonnes / day. Now by using ship loader, our loading capacity has become double the rate as achieved before

Resources

India is blessed with large reserves of strategic and economically important heavy minerals such as Ilmenite, Rutile, leucoxene, zircon, monazite, garnet and sillimanite. These deposits are mostly located in the coastal stretches of peninsular India with the exception of few inland placer deposits. Ilmenite is the largest constituent of the Indian beach sand deposits, followed by sillimanite and garnet.

Technical-Specifications-of-Ilmenite

Applications-of-Ilmenite

Grades

http://www.vvmineral.com/ilmenite.htm

Our exclusive distributor for supply across the world

		Australasian Minerals & Trading Pty Ltd.,
Suite 7, Second Floor, 2 Centro Avenue, Subiaco WA 6008 Australia
Phone : 00 61 8 9381 5000
Fax : 00 61 8 9381 5011
E-mail : grant@amandt.com.au
Contact Person : Mr. Grant Smith

http://www.vvmineral.com/ilmenite-distributor.htm

APPLICATIONS OF ILMENITE :

Titanium -for which Ilmenite (FeTiO3) is the chief ore is widely used

	as pigment in paint industry
	in plastics Industry
	in High Quality Paper.
	in welding electrodes.
	in processing of Graded Steel.
	in the manufacture of high quality Photo grey sun glasses.
	in preparation titanium metal
	for coatings and lining for blast furnace hearth
	in field of aerospace
	in nuclear powered submarine
	sport and medicine
	in water purification.
	for cosmetics products
	for drilling liquid manufacturing

http://www.vvmineral.com/ilmenite-application.htm

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF ILMENITE

Group	:	Oxides
Composition	:	FeTiO2
Hardness	:	5-6
Bulk Densit	:	2.0
Specific Gravity	:	4.72
Cleavage	:	None
Fracture	:	Conchoidal to uneven

This mineral usually forms thick, tabular crystals; sometimes it forms rhombohedral crystals. Twinning is common. Other habits are lamellar, massive, compact, and granular. It is black or brownish black, with a black to brownish red streak. It is opaque. Ilmenite has a luster ranging from metallic to dull.

Typical Chemical and Size Analysis

Elements	HT	TIS	TVM	TVV	TVP
TiO2	54.0 ~ 57.0%	51.0 ~ 52.5%	51 ~ 52.5%	48.0 ~ 50.0%	45.0 ~ 47.0%
Fe2O3	19.0 ~ 26.0%	11.0 ~ 14.5%	10.5 ~ 14.0%	13.0 ~1 6.0%	14.0 ~ 18.0%
FeO	12.0 ~ 22.0%	31.0 ~ 35%	28.0 ~ 35.0%	30.0 ~ 35.0%	33.0 ~ 37.0%
SiO2	2.30% Max	1.2 % Max	2.20% Max	2.0 % Max	1.00 % Max
Al2O3	1.50% Max	0.7% Max	1.2 % Max	1.0% Max	0.600 % Max
V2O5	0.300 Max	0.3 Max	0.25% Max	0.300 Max	0.300 % Max
Cr2O3	0.100 Max	0.06 Max	0.07% Max	0.060 Max	0.070 % Max

Grade Wise Grain Size

Mesh	MM	HT	TIS	TVM	TVV	TVP
30	0.6	0.02	0.00	0.0	0.02	0.0
40	0.425	0.58	0.09	0.18	0.10	0.02
50	0.300	7.98	2.92	6.02	3.04	2.42
60	0.250	12.36	6.32	8.76	4.82	4.18
70	0.212	19.34	14.40	15.52	11.02	7.74
80	0.180	20.02	21.46	18.02	14.52	11.76
100	0.150	17.40	25.20	21.48	19.52	16.42
120	0.125	12.94	19.05	17.70	19.86	22.56
140	0.106	4.82	5.74	6.94	11.30	14.54
170	0.090	2.48	2.40	3.10	7.82	9.70
200	0.075	1.34	1.70	1.42	5.84	7.38
	Pan	0.72	0.72	0.86	2.14	3.28

	HT	TIS	TVM	TVV	TVP
Download Specs

http://www.vvmineral.com/ilmenite-tech_speci.htm

Zircon- This glassy mineral has found its place in many an industrial application worldwide. Starting from ceramics and refractory tiles to a range of high-tech applications. Zircon compounds have a very low toxicity and are not perceived as a potential environmental hazard. They are even said to have some medicinal properties and are now increasingly preferred in the manufacture of food products and pharmaceuticals too.

Zircon's exceptional qualities of hardness and durability makes it a must-use for the manufacture of ceramics and refractory tiles and also for a range of other high-tech applications such as armour plating on military aircraft, heat shield in space shuttles and potentially as solid oxide fuel cells in hydrogen powered vehicles in many industrial and chemical applications.

USES :

The Industrial zircon ceramics are extensively used as linings to protect furnaces and kilns for smelting of metals because they can retain their physical and chemical composition even when subjected to high temperatures. Zircon application is mainly confined to mould faces and cores, which directly come in contact with molten metal. Zircon sand helps in minimising the penetration of mould by the molten metal and thus ensures that the casting gets a good surface finish.

It is predominantly used as a glaze material and as an opacifier to provide shine and brightness for crockery, sanitary ware, Ceramic tiles, other decorative ceramic products and is also widely used in television and computer screens. Resistance to corrosion and erosion makes zircon products ideal for use in the chemical industry and in desalination plants.

Zircon is a key raw material used in the production of opacifiers, glazes and frits, floor and decorative tiles, sanitary ware, glass and steel refractories, metal castings and specialised glass. Consumption of zircon products in the manufacture of faceplates for TV monitors and computer screens continues to increase, particularly in developing countries. The increased use of zirconium chemicals and zirconia in various applications continues with China being in the forefront of new production facilities to service these industries. Recently announced construction of additional nuclear power stations in China and South Korea will create continued demand for zirconium metal in this very specialised market.

The current driving force in zircon demand is both in China and India where the various consuming industries have expanded across the board, increasing usage to the extent that global demand now exceeds global production capacity. A rundown of stock levels both in producer and consumer hands has created a severe shortage of material to the extent that some industries have been required to close. This imbalance will continue to exist until the arrival of new production sources, currently planned to come on line in 2006.

Zircon is a hard, glassy mineral used for the manufacture of ceramics and refractories and also in a range of other high-tech industrial and chemical applications. It is used extensively for ceramic glazes - most commonly seen in kitchen tiles, dinner ware, bathroom products and decorative ceramics.

Industrial ceramics made using zircon are used for heat and abrasion resistance. Some industrial ceramics are referred to as refractories - materials that retain their physical shape and chemical composition when subjected to very high temperatures. With a melting point of around 18,000C, these refractories are used as linings to protect furnaces and kilns for smelting metals and for the manufacture of chemicals.

Resistance to corrosion and erosion makes zircon products ideal for use in the chemical industry and in desalination plants. One of the early discoveries for zircon use was for the manufacture of phosphates for kidney dialysis. Zircon compounds have a very low toxicity and are now increasingly preferred in the manufacture of some foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and medicines. It is even used in toothpaste to prevent tooth decay

APPLICATIONS:

The increased use of zirconium chemicals and zirconia in various applications continues with China being in the forefront of new production facilities to service these industries. Recently announced construction of additional nuclear power stations in China and South Korea will create continued demand for zirconium metal in this very specialised market.

The current driving force in zircon demand is both in China and India where the various consuming industries have expanded across the board, increasing usage to the extent that global demand now exceeds global production capacity. A rundown of stock levels both in producer and consumer hands has created a severe shortage of material to the extent that some industries have been required to close. This imbalance will continue to exist until the arrival of new production sources, currently planned to come on line in 2006.

With a melting point of around 18,000C, these refractories are used as linings to protect furnaces and kilns for smelting metals and for the manufacture of chemicals.

Resistance to corrosion and erosion makes zircon products ideal for use in the chemical industry and in desalination plants.

http://www.vvmineral.com/zircon.htm

Typical Chemical Analysis

	I - Premium	II - Standard
Elements	Typical	Typical
ZrO2 + HfO2	66.51%	65.44%
TiO2	0.100%	0.19%
Fe2O3	0.06%	0.07%
U (ppm)	242 ppm	284 ppm
Th (ppm)	121 ppm	148 ppm

Typical Sieve Analysis

		I - Premium	II - Standard
Mesh	MM	Retained %	Retained %
30	0.600	0	0
40	0.425	0.02	0.04
50	0.300	1.34	2.20
60	0.250	3.82	5.22
70	0.212	10.22	10.74
80	0.180	15.31	17.40
100	0.150	26.77	26.92
120	0.125	30.34	24.80
140	0.106	10.48	9.20
170	0.090	1.52	2.04
Pan		0.18	1.44

Typical Mineralogy

	I - Premim	II - Standard
Mineral	Typical	Typical
Zircon Rutile	99.0%	98.10%
Zircon Rutile	0.10%	0.22%
Sillimanite	0.78%	1.56%
Free Quartz	0.12%	0.12%

Download Specs	I - Premium	II - Standard
Download Specs

http://www.vvmineral.com/zircon_grades.htm

IDENTITY INFORMATION

NAME OF THE PRODUCT (IDENTITY)

RUTILE SAND
RUTILE
VVM RUTILE
Pu RUTILE

CHEMICAL FORMULA

TiO2

USES

	Feedstock for Titanium Dioxide pigment plants, Welding Electrodes,
	Titanium metal and Titanium sponge.

Foundry uses

Chemical Analysis
Element	Value
TiO2	94 ~ 96%
Fe2O3	0.5 ~ 1.5%
SiO2	0.5 ~ 1.5%
Al2O3	0.2 ~ 1%
Cr2O3	0.1 ~ 0.4 %
P2O5	0.002 ~ 0.05%
ZrO2	0.3 ~ 1.5%
U	200 ppm max
Th	200 ppm max
Mgo	0.005 ~ 0.02%
CaO	0.005 ~ 0.04
V2O5	0.3 ~ 1%
Nb2O5	0.5 ~ 1%

Size Analysis
Mesh	MM	Retained % Range
30	0.600	Nil
40	0.425	Nil
50	0.300	Less than 3%
60	0.250	2 ~ 8%
70	0.212	8 ~ 15%
80	0.180	15 ~ 25%
100	0.150	25 ~ 35%
120	0.125	15 ~ 25%
140	0.106	8 ~ 15%
-140	- 0.106	Less than 6%

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

APPEARANCE IN DRY FORM	Brownish white free running sand
Odour	Odourless
Taste	Tasteless
Melting Point	>1850°C
Special Gravity	4.0 -4.4
Bulk Density	2.5 g/cm3
Specific Heat	Conductive

Hardness	-
Solubility in Water	Insoluble
pH	-
Crystal System	Cubic
Free Flow	98% minimum
Moisture absorbtion	Non-hygroscopic
Magnetism	Non-Magnetic

HEALTH HAZARD INFORMATION (ACUTE AND CHRONIC)
Ingestion	:	May cause mild irritation due to abrasiveness when swallowing large amount
Inhalation	:	Can be irritating if inhaled high concentration of Rutile dust. May cause symptoms such as coughing or sneezing.
Eye	:	Can be irritating due to abrasiveness
Skin	:	Very Low Hazard

FIRST AID MEASURES AND PROCEDURES
Ingestion	:	No specific intervention is indicated. If discomfort is experienced, a physician or medical personnel should be consulted
Inhalation	:	Remove to fresh air. If irritation develops consult a physician or other qualified medical personnel
Eye	:	Flush eyes with water and consult a physician if irritation develops and persists.
Skin	:	Wash material from the skin. Launder clothing before re-use.

FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA : NONE APPLICABLE

ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES : DISPOSE & AVOID DUSTING, ENSURE VENTILATION

HANDLING AND STORAGE : ENSURE GOOD VENTILATION TO MINIMIZE DUST LEVEL

PRECAUTIONS FOR USE
Respiratory protection	:	Avoid breathing dust
Skin protection	:	Wear suitable gloves and appropriate clothing to avoid skin irritation
Eye protection	:	Use of safety glasses or goggles is recommended strongly.

Click here to download Rutile MSDS

http://www.vvmineral.com/rutile-mat_safety.htm

Rutile is an interesting, varied and important mineral. Rutile is a major ore of titanium, a metal used for high tech alloys because of its light weight, high strength and resistance to corrosion.

General Description :

Heavy mineral sand containing titanium

Appearance

Black/ Brown sand

Typical Specification

TiO₂	:	95 % min
Fe₂O₃	:	1 % max
ZrO₂	:	1 % max

Download Specs

Origins

Ukraine, Australia

Applications

TiO2 pigment
Welding electrodes
Titanium metal,
coloring agent in ceramic and glass products,
filler in paints

Toxicology

N/A

Grades and Brands

Premium grade 95 % TiO2

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

Color is black or reddish brown in large thick crystals or golden yellow or rusty yellow as inclusions or in thin crystals.

Luster is adamantine to submetallic.

Transparency: Crystals are transparent in rather thin crystals otherwise opaque.

Crystal System is tetragonal; 4/m 2/m 2/m

Crystal Habits include eight sided prisms and blocky crystals terminated by a blunt four sided or complex pyramid. The prisms are composed of two four sided prisms with one of the prisms being dominant. Crystals with some twins forming hexagonal or octahedral circles. A very common habit is thin acicular needles (especially as inclusions in other minerals) or as blades.

Cleavage is good in two directions forming prisms, poor in a third (basal).

Fracture is conchoidal to uneven.

Hardness is 6 - 6.5

Specific Gravity is 4.2+ (slightly heavy)

Streak is brown

Other Characteristics: Striations lengthwise on crystals, high refractive index (2.63) gives it a sparkle greater than diamond (2.42).

Associated Minerals are quartz, tourmaline, barite, hematite and other oxides and silicates.

Notable Occurrences include Minas Gerias, Brazil; Swiss Alps; Arkansas, USA and some African locallities.

Best Field Indicators are crystal habit, streak, hardness, color and high index of refraction (luster).

Titanium minerals are used in the production of titanium dioxide pigment. Pure white, highly refractive, ultra violet absorbing, non toxic and inert, titanium pigments are used in protective coatings, such as house and car paints, sunscreens, plastics, paper and textiles, as well as a growing number of foodstuffs and cosmetics.

Titanium minerals also act as a fluxing agent in welding electrodes that are used extensively in shipbuilding and construction. Iluka is a major global supplier of consistently high quality titanium mineral products preferred by many customers, with an industry market share of more than 20%. Iluka’s operations are located in Australia and the United States, both stable operating environments with low political risk.

The combination of strength and lightness of titanium metal makes it an ideal material for advanced engineering applications, architectural coatings, the aerospace industry and in a range of other applications, including sports equipment and jewellery. Titanium minerals also act as a fluxing agent in welding electrodes that are used extensively in shipbuilding and construction. Iluka is a major global supplier of consistently high quality titanium mineral products preferred by many customers, with an industry market share of more than 20%. Iluka’s operations are located in Australia and the United States, both stable operating environments with low political risk.

http://www.vvmineral.com/rutile.htm

Chemical Analysis

Elements	Guaranteed	Typical
TiO2 SO3	95% Min	96.3
TiO2 SO3	0.02% Max	0.002
ZrO2	1.5% Max	0.95
P2O5	0.02 Max	0.008
SiO2 Fe2O3	1% Max	0.65
SiO2 Fe2O3	1% Max	0.31

Typical Size Analysis of Rutile

Elements	Guaranteed	Typical
30	0.600	Nil
40	0.425	Less than 1%
50	0.300	2 ~ 4%
60	0.250	3 ~ 8%
70	0.212	8 ~ 15%
80	0.180	20 ~ 30%
100	0.150	25 ~ 35%
120	0.125	20 ~ 30%
140	0.106	8 ~ 15%
-140	- 0.106	Less than 5%

Typical Mineralogy

Mineral	Typical
Rutile	97.88%
Zircon	1.5%
Free Quartz	0.03%
Leucoxene	0.53%

Click here to download Rutile Technical Specification

http://www.vvmineral.com/rutile-tech_speci.htm

GEM OF AN ABRASIVE

Our brand - Super Garnet - is a non - metallic naturally obtainable mineral abrasive mined from the beaches of the Gulf of Mannar. The grains have a unique curved cubical form as a result of hundreds of years under wave action. During mining and processing there is no grinding or breaking of particles. Hence, Super Garnet is a genuine virgin almandine garnet belonging to the gem family. Almandine garnet is the heaviest and hardest of garnets, and can withstand more cutting speed and maintain low dust levels. With its crystalline shape giving a fast cutting action and longer life span, Super Garnet is highly efficient and effective as an abrasive.

Our Product is of the highest quality and is compliant to ISO 11126-10 Standard. Added to its natural value as a semi- precious stone, Super Garnet's uniqueness justifies the title "Gem of an Abrasive".

PROPERTIES OF GARNET ABRASIVE:

	Natural grain sizes from 106 m to 2000
	Specific weight of 4.1 g/cm³
	Average bulk density of 2.4 g/cm³
	Highly stable, non- hygroscopic, inert and not susceptible to acid
	Does not contaminate surfaces of non-ferrous materials
	Exhibits high toughness with a very low particle breakdown on impact
	Does not contain Free Silica http://www.vvmineral.com/supergarnet.htm

	Sand Blasting
	WaterJet Cutting
	Water Filtration
	Surface preparation
	Other Applications

Super Garnet finds wide-ranging applications in several industries. Typically, it is preferred.


Abrasive Blasting

For blast cleaning for preparation before painting (Sand Blasting), Petrochemical tankworks, offshore platforms, pipelines, Heavy Equipment Repair, Industrial Parts cleaning, In high-pressure water jet cutting of marble, granite, artificial stones, concrete, aluminum, titanium, high strength steel and steel bridge decking, automotive glass, textiles, corrugated boxboard, plastics laminates, aerospace composites, etc.,

In high-quality coated and bonded abrasives such as abrasive papers, cloths, wheels, etc. Micronised form of Super Garnet is used for polishing of glass faceplates of televisions, computer monitors and optical glasses Polishing & Precision Finishing of high pressure Valves. For artistic engraving or matting of surfaces such as glass, marble, granite, etc.

As bedding in water filtration and water softening as Super Garnet in Heavy Metal removal the best. In anti-skid paints and surfaces, as Super Garnet lasts longer and provides excellent bonding

For stone washing of denim fabrics, providing only fading of dye but not damaging the cloth or stitching

Used in Industrial Flooring as Super Garnet withstands more wear & tear and provides better grip.

ABRASIVE BLASTING:

Grade		Advantage	Application
	Grade A	Ideal for Tar removing Used to remove thickest and most adherent coatings. High surface profile application (4+mil) Multiple recycling possible	Ship repair Petrochemical Industrial Painting Bridges
	12/25 Mesh
	Grade B	High surface profile blasting (3-4mil) Used to remove thick coatings Remove rust in maintenance applications Multiple recycling possible	Ship repair Petrochemical Industrial Painting
	20/40 Mesh
	Grade C	General purpose cleaning Surface preparation	Steel, aluminium surface painting Ship cleaning Denim blasting Heavy equipment repair Industrial Painting
	30/60 Mesh
	Grade D	On sensitive materials Surface preparation for aluminium	New steel painting Aluminium surface painting Road Painting Industrial Painting
	40/80 Mesh
	Grade E	Low surface profile finish	Aircraft Parts Hydroblast Cleaning Ship Propellers Turbine Blades Industrial Painting New Steel Painting
	60/120 Mesh

Profile Created during Abrasive Blasting

Grade	Profile (Microns)
A (Coarse)	80-120
B (Medium)	70-95
C (Fine)	50-80
D (Fine)	40-70
E (Fine)	35-60

WATERJET CUTTING:

Grade		Advantage	Application
	Grade C	Tough, Aggressive precision waterjet abrasive.	Thickest and most difficult machine materials
	30/60 Mesh
	Grade D	Speed & Finish Precision Cutting	Steel Aluminium Glass Granite Marble
	40/80 Mesh
	Grade E	Elimination of secondary finishing work	Glass Cutting Precision Metal finishing
	60/120 Mesh

WATER FILTERATION PRODUCTS:

Grade		Advantage	Application
	Grade A+	Coarsest Grains Unique ot Super Garnet	Water Filtration
	8/12 Mesh
	Grade A	Longer Life of Filter Media Larger Grain Size for easy Backwashing Particle size distribution improves filtering efficiency Longer interval of backwash cycles. Best bed for absorption of Heavy Metals	Water Filtration
	12/25 Mesh

The information stated herein is based on tests conducted at our labs/test facilities. It is intended as indicatory references for technically skilled persons, taking into consideration proper configuration, working area and substrate condition, at their own risk and discretion. VVM makes no warranties, expressed or implied, on the use of our products, since the conditions of using these products are outside our control. For these reasons, VV Mineral assumes no responsibility and expressly disclaim liability in connection to the use of information provided in this website.

http://www.vvmineral.com/supgarnet-application.htm

ADVANTAGES OF SUPER GARNET

A host of application, economical, safety, and environmental advantages makeSuper Garnet the preferred choice across a wide range of industries.

	ADVANTAGES IN APPLICATION
	Non-contaminating No chemicals are used during processing of Super Garnet. Additionally, the inert character of this natural mineral assures that even non-ferrous material surfaces are not contaminated. It is safer than ferrous abrasives especially as Garnet does not damage electromagnetic components.

Low Dusting
Due to its highly durable crystalline structure, Super Garnet exhibits very low particle breakdown on impact. This also results in better visibility during blasting.

Excellent Surface Preparation and Bonding
While painting certain surfaces, pre-treatment abrasive blasting with Super Garnet gives uniform high-profile roughness for strong bonding. The blasting leaves no residue and hence no further cleaning is required before painting. Blast cleaning using garnet is ideal for cleaning uneven surfaces.

Water Softening
As a natural heavy mineral, Super Garnet is an effective water softener. There is no known economical alternative for garnet as a water filtration bed as it resets the filter bed faster after the bed is back flushed. It also has the advantage of being chemically inert. It is also effective for the removal of Heavy minerals.

High Quality Stonewashing
In textile industry, while stonewashing of fabrics, blasting using Super Garnet does not damage the fabric but safely removes the dye without damaging the fabric or stitching.

ECONOMICAL ADVANTAGES

High Quality
In abrasive blast cleaning, compared to any other abrasive, Super Garnet saves time and covers more area-a statement verified by field trials.

Cheaper
Economics of Super Garnet usage compares favorably with synthetic abrasives of similar hardness, which are almost eight times costlier.

Long Lifespan and recyclability
During sand blasting, Super Garnet can be recycled to a maximum of six to eight times as there is low particle breakdown on impact.

Less wear and tear on Nozzles
The natural beach-washing of the minerals gives tumbled edges to Super Garnet and as a result cause less wear and tear on the jet nozzle. In addition, the uniform grain structure minimizes machine downtime and nozzle clogging.

Faster Waste Removal
The high specific gravity of Super Garnet results in rapid settling of the breakaway particles. Hence, the residual slag is easily disposable.

SAFETY TO HUMAN HEALTH

Super Garnet does not fall under the jurisdiction of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration's (OSHAS) Hazard Communication Standard because:

	it is inert
	it is non-toxic with no radioactive components
	it does not contain free iron, copper or heavy metals
	There is no danger of silicosis, since Super Garnet does not contain free silica.

Super Garnet is an eco-friendly natural abrasive.

It does not contain any water-soluble constituents that could pollute water resources. When used offshore, garnet does not contaminate or foul the sea bed or disturb marine life.

It is water free and does not absorb water.

It is non-polluting due to its inert character and low dust emission.

ts high recyclability and non-toxicity results in better waste management and zero-environmental fallout-from Earth to Earth.

From Earth to Earth.
Garnet is a natural mineral and by using garnet - you return the mineral taken from earth back to earth.

http://www.vvmineral.com/supgarnet-advan.htm

SIEVE ANALYSIS

Below is the Sieve Analysis of different standardized grades of Super Garnet.

STANDARD SIZES OF SUPER GARNET

Size /		Grade	A+	A	B	C+	C	D+	D	E
Mesh	Micron	MM	1.700 ~ 0.800	1.400 ~ 0.425	0.850 ~ 0.300	0.850 ~ 0.250	0.600 ~ 0.180	0.425 ~ 0.180	0.425 ~ 0.180	0.250 ~ 0.090
Retained			%	%	%	%	%	%	%	%
12	1700	1.700	1.17
14	1400	1.400	11.58	0.12
18	1000	1.000	74.21	19.58
20	850	0.850	8.36	46.88	0.17	0.14
30	600	0.600	4.68	33.10	31.25	12.70	0.24
40	425	0.425		0.32	60.68	32.40	16.02	0.02	0.4
50	300	0.300			7.90	44.62	50.34	46.30	15.20
60	250	0.250				7.54	18.30	37.70	32.64	0.04
70	212	0.212				2.60	10.04	11.22	35.04	9.05
80	180	0.180					5.06	4.42	15.50	49.44
100	150	0.150						0.34	1.58	33.09
120	125	0.125								7.16
140	106	0.106								1.22
Total			100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
Download Specs

http://www.vvmineral.com/supgarnet-st_grades.htm

Chemical Analysis

Elements	Guaranteed	Typical
TiO2 SO3	95% Min	96.3
TiO2 SO3	0.02% Max	0.002
ZrO2	1.5% Max	0.95
P2O5	0.02 Max	0.008
SiO2 Fe2O3	1% Max	0.65
SiO2 Fe2O3	1% Max	0.31

Typical Size Analysis of Rutile

Elements	Guaranteed	Typical
30	0.600	Nil
40	0.425	Less than 1%
50	0.300	2 ~ 4%
60	0.250	3 ~ 8%
70	0.212	8 ~ 15%
80	0.180	20 ~ 30%
100	0.150	25 ~ 35%
120	0.125	20 ~ 30%
140	0.106	8 ~ 15%
-140	- 0.106	Less than 5%

Typical Mineralogy

Mineral	Typical
Rutile	97.88%
Zircon	1.5%
Free Quartz	0.03%
Leucoxene	0.53%

Click here to download Rutile Technical Specification

http://www.vvmineral.com/rutile-tech_speci.htm

You may also contact any of our distributors across the globe at:


	Abu Dhabi Construction Company
P.O. Box No. 56180, Abudhabi, U.A.E.
Phone : + 971 2 4455800 / 4455474
Fax : + 971 2 4459789
E-mail : info@adcc.ae
Contact Person : Mr. Husam M. Al Khateeb


	AMPECO GmbH
Poststrasse 5, D-46535, Dinslaken,
Germany,
Phone: +49 2064 60914 - 11 Fax: +49 2064 60914-10
E-Mail: info@ampeco.de
Website: www.ampeco.de
Contact Person: Mr. Peter Ley


	STEAG Power Minerals GmbH
Duisburger Strasse 170 D-46535, Dinslaken Germany
Phone : + 49 2064 608 307
Fax : + 49 2064 608 347
E-mail : info-powerminerals@steag.com
Contact Person : Mr. Marcus Klenke


	Pan Abrasives (Pte) Ltd
2, Woodlands Sector 1, #05-20 Woodlands Spectrum I, Singapore 738 068
Phone : + 65 68616988
Fax : + 65 68610919
E-mail : fiona_chai@pan-abrasives.com
Contact Person : Ms. Fiona Chai


	Industrial Minerals (N.Z) Ltd.,
Unit I 44-46 Constellation Drive, North Shore, Auckland, 0751, New Zealand
Phone :+ 64 9 476 2376 / 2378 Free Phone : 800 646 3725 ( 800 MINERAL)
Fax : + 64 9 476 2378
E-mail: sales@industrial-minerals.co.nz
Contact Person : Mr. Evan Thornton
Committed to: Real People, Real Service, Real Value


	Barton Mines Company LLC,
6 Warren Steeet, Glens Falls, NY 12801 USA.
Phone : + 1 518 798 5462
Fax : + 1 518 798 5728
E-mail : cfsummers@barton.com
Contact Person : Mr. Cliff Summers


	MBN Trading Sdn. Bhd.
Suite 5-04, Plaza 138, Jalan Ampang, 50450 - Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Phone : + 60 3 2161 5557
Fax : + 60 3 2161 4557
E-mail : garnet1@streamyx.com
Contact Person : Mr. Nazer ( Director)
Website: www.garnet.com.my


	SB International
Stripping & Blasting Engineering
Works C-503, Garden5, 289 Munjeong-dong,
Songpa-gu, Seoul, Korea.
Phone : +82 2 2047 1414
Fax : +82 2 2047 1418
Contact Person : Mr.S.K.Kim, President

http://www.vvmineral.com/supgarnet-distributors.htm

V.V. Mineral (VVM) is India's largest Mining, Manufacturer and Exporter of Garnet & Ilmenite. At the global level, we are poised to rise above our number two position.VVM is the first private ILMENITE Exporter in India. Established in 1989, we have achieved significant market share in Europe, Middle East, East Asia, Australia and USA.

VVM's huge annual output of 1,50,000 metric tonnes of Garnet Abrasive, 2,25,000 metric tonnes of Ilmenite, 12,000 Metric Tonnes of Zircon and 5000 Metric Tonnes of Rutile is due to our control of a 15km beach area with continuous placer mineral deposits plus another 2,300 acres of heavy mineral - rich land. We are also the first private company in India holding granted license for Mining and Exporting of Ilmenite from the Government of India.

VVM has an annual output of 150,000 M.Tons of Garnet Abrasive and 2,25,000 M.Tons of Ilmenite. Garnet Abrasive mainly used for Water Filtration, Sand Blasting, Water Jet Cutting, Surface Preparation and other applications;

Ilmenite mainly used for Welding Electrode, Pigment, Glass and other Industries; Rutile mainly used for TiO2 pigment , Welding electrodes, Titanium metal and pigment industries and Zircon mainly used for in the production of opacifiers, glazes and frits, floor and decorative tiles, sanitary ware, glass and steel refractories, metal castings and specialised glass.

We owe our success to our primary objective -Customer Delight and Satisfaction - providing the best quality of Garnet, Ilmenite, Rutile and Zircon in lesser lead times at globally competitive prices. We have achieved this by strengthening the areas of human resource management, modernisation, logistics, finance and infrastructure. The numerous awards and recognitions from various governmental and non-governmental agencies stand testimony to this. We are also proud to state that V.V. Mineral has, since establishment, never had a single rejection-another testimony to our total quality management systems.

All these achievements have been made possible because of the unique properties and superlative advantages of our product - Super Garnet and other products.

Our corporate policy of having autonomous departments has ensured the evolution of VVM as a prompt and responsive organization catering to our clients' multifarious needs. The company's special focus on the quality of our production team has translated into higher quality products and lesser lead times by adopting ISO System. Our streamlined mining, processing, logistics and warehousing facilities augment this focus.


Mr. S. Vaikundarajan	Mr. S. Jegatheesan	Mr. V. Subramanian	Mr. J. Muthurajan
Chairman & Managing Director	Managing Director	Managing Director	Managing Director

http://www.vvmineral.com/about.htm

V.V. Mineral has an independent and fully empowered quality control department in each production/processing center. The team monitors each and every bag production and process the sample taken for once in three hours for maintaining the quality. The laboratories, both at the plant and warehouse, are fully equipped to make the necessary tests for quality and sieve analysis as per IS standards.

The range of laboratory equipment include those of, "Mettler" - Australia and "Haver & Boecker"- Germany, IS standardised test Sieves from Germany and XRF - Philips from UK.

Every Shipment comes with a guaranteed Quality Certification from our Central Laboratories, under the reference of ISO 11127- 2.


XRF Analyser

Our centralized laboratories at the warehouse not only checks materials to stated qualities, but also ensures that each shipment is made only when the material quality conforms to required customer specifications for that shipment. Our zero-rejection track record owes its success to our quality motto: "It is right; or it does not leave the factory floor."

Quality Control System

http://www.vvmineral.com/quality.htm

Trust and quality have been the cornerstones of our "Customer Delight " policy. Our reputation has been the result of various attributes that V.V. Minerals gave high priority to, like:

	Close interaction with customers on product requirements
	Flexibility and empathy with customers on their needs
	Collaborative relationship with distributors and end users
	Fast and timely delivery of products· Safe and secure transit of shipment
	Continuous R&D on process and quality improvement through customer feedback
	Winning new customers' confidence through facility tours
	Adherence to regulations and cooperation with authorities

GARNET & ILMENITE DIVISION:

RUTILE & ZIRCON DIVISION:

V.V.MINERAL,
KEERAIKARANTHATTU
TISAIYANVILAI 627 657
TAMIL NADU, INDIA.

Phone: +91 4637 272365

Phone: +91 4637 272363

Fax : +91 4637 271802

Fax : +91 4637 272747

E-mail sales@vvmineral.com
vvmindia@vvmineral.com

E-mail

rutile@vvmineral.com

zircon@vvmineral.com

http://www.vvmineral.com/contact.htm

V.V. Mineral (VVM) is India's largest Mining, Manufacturer and Exporter of Garnet & Ilmenite. At the global level, we are poised to rise above our number two position. VVM is the first private ILMENITE Exporter in India. Established in 1989, we have achieved significant market share in Europe, Middle East, East Asia, Australia and USA.

We owe our success to our primary objective -Customer Delight and Satisfaction - providing the best quality of Garnet, Ilmenite, Rutile and Zircon in lesser lead times at globally competitive prices.

Rare earth element

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Rare earths)

Rare earth ore, shown with a United States penny for size comparison

These rare-earth oxides are used as tracers to determine which parts of adrainage basin are eroding. Clockwise from top center: praseodymium, cerium,lanthanum, neodymium, samarium, andgadolinium.^[1]

As defined by IUPAC, rare earth elements ("REEs") or rare earth metals are a set of seventeen chemical elements in the periodic table, specifically the fifteen lanthanidesplus scandium and yttrium.^[2] Scandium and yttrium are considered rare earth elements since they tend to occur in the same ore deposits as the lanthanides and exhibit similar chemical properties.

Despite their name, rare earth elements (with the exception of the radioactive promethium) are relatively plentiful in the Earth's crust, with cerium being the 25th most abundant element at 68 parts per million (similar to copper). However, because of their geochemical properties, rare earth elements are typically dispersed and not often found in concentrated and economically exploitable forms. The few economically exploitable deposits are known as rare earth minerals.^[3] It was the very scarcity of these minerals (previously called "earths") that led to the term "rare earth". The first such mineral discovered was gadolinite, a compound of cerium, yttrium, iron, silicon and other elements. This mineral was extracted from a mine in the village of Ytterby in Sweden; several of the rare earth elements bear names derived from this location.

[hide]

[edit]List

A table listing the seventeen rare earth elements, their atomic number and symbol, the etymology of their names, and their main usages (see also Technological applications) is provided here. Some of the rare earths are named after the scientists who discovered or elucidated their elemental properties, and some after their geographical discovery.

Z	Symbol	Name	Etymology	Selected applications
21	Sc	Scandium	from Latin Scandia(Scandinavia), where the first rare earth ore was discovered.	Light aluminium-scandium alloy for aerospace components, additive inMercury-vapor lamps.^[4]
39	Y	Yttrium	after the village ofYtterby, Sweden, where the first rare earth ore was discovered.	Yttrium-aluminium garnet (YAG) laser, yttrium vanadate (YVO4) as host for europium in TV red phosphor, YBCO high-temperature superconductors, yttrium iron garnet (YIG) microwave filters.^[4], energy-efficient light bulbs^[5]
57	La	Lanthanum	from the Greek "lanthanein", meaning to be hidden.	High refractive index glass, flint, hydrogen storage, battery-electrodes,camera lenses, fluid catalytic cracking catalyst for oil refineries
58	Ce	Cerium	after the dwarf planetCeres, named after the Roman goddess of agriculture.	Chemical oxidizing agent, polishing powder, yellow colors in glass and ceramics, catalyst for self-cleaning ovens, fluid catalytic crackingcatalyst for oil refineries, ferrocerium flints for lighters
59	Pr	Praseodymium	from the Greek "prasios", meaning leek-green, and "didymos", meaning twin.	Rare-earth magnets, lasers, core material for carbon arc lighting, colorant in glasses and enamels, additive in didymium glass used inwelding goggles,^[4] ferrocerium firesteel (flint) products.
60	Nd	Neodymium	from the Greek "neos", meaning new, and "didymos", meaning twin.	Rare-earth magnets, lasers, violet colors in glass and ceramics,ceramic capacitors
61	Pm	Promethium	after the Titan Prometheus, who brought fire to mortals.	Nuclear batteries
62	Sm	Samarium	after Vasili Samarsky-Bykhovets, who discovered the rare earth ore samarskite.	Rare-earth magnets, lasers, neutron capture, masers
63	Eu	Europium	after the continent ofEurope.	Red and blue phosphors, lasers, mercury-vapor lamps, NMR relaxation agent
64	Gd	Gadolinium	after Johan Gadolin(1760–1852), to honor his investigation of rare earths.	Rare-earth magnets, high refractive index glass or garnets, lasers, X-ray tubes, computer memories, neutron capture, MRI contrast agent,NMR relaxation agent
65	Tb	Terbium	after the village of Ytterby, Sweden.	Green phosphors, lasers, fluorescent lamps
66	Dy	Dysprosium	from the Greek "dysprositos", meaninghard to get.	Rare-earth magnets, lasers
67	Ho	Holmium	after Stockholm (in Latin, "Holmia"), native city of one of its discoverers.	Lasers
68	Er	Erbium	after the village of Ytterby, Sweden.	Lasers, vanadium steel
69	Tm	Thulium	after the mythological northern land of Thule.	Portable X-ray machines
70	Yb	Ytterbium	after the village of Ytterby, Sweden.	Infrared lasers, chemical reducing agent
71	Lu	Lutetium	after Lutetia, the city which later becameParis.	PET Scan detectors, high refractive index glass

[edit]Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are often used:

RE = rare earth
REM = rare-earth metals
REE = rare-earth elements
REO = rare-earth oxides
REY = rare-earth elements and yttrium
LREE = light rare earth elements (La. Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, and Gd; also known as the cerium group)^[6]^[7]
HREE = heavy rare earth elements (Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu, and Y; also known as the yttrium group)^[6]^[7]

[edit]Discovery and early history

Rare earth elements became known to the world with the discovery of the black mineral "ytterbite" (renamed to gadolinite in 1800) by Lieutenant Carl Axel Arrhenius in 1787, at a quarry in the village of Ytterby, Sweden.^[8]

Arrhenius' "ytterbite" reached Johan Gadolin, a Royal Academy of Turku professor, and his analysis yielded an unknown oxide (earth) which he called yttria. Anders Gustav Ekeberg isolated beryllium from the gadolinite but failed to recognize other elements which the ore contained. After this discovery in 1794 a mineral from Bastnäs near Riddarhyttan, Sweden, which was believed to be an iron-tungsten mineral, was re-examined by Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger. In 1803 they obtained a white oxide and called it ceria. Martin Heinrich Klaproth independently discovered the same oxide and called it ochroia.

Thus by 1803 there were two known rare earth elements, yttrium and cerium, although it took another 30 years for researchers to determine that other elements were contained in the two ores ceria and yttria (the similarity of the rare earth metals' chemical properties made their separation difficult).

In 1839 Carl Gustav Mosander, an assistant of Berzelius, separated ceria by heating the nitrate and dissolving the product in nitric acid. He called the oxide of the soluble salt lanthana. It took him three more years to separate the lanthana further into didymia and pure lanthana. Didymia, although not further separable by Mosander's techniques was a mixture of oxides.

In 1842 Mosander also separated the yttria into three oxides: pure yttria, terbia and erbia (all the names are derived from the town name "Ytterby"). The earth giving pink salts he called terbium; the one which yielded yellow peroxide he called erbium.

So in 1842 the number of rare earth elements had reached six: yttrium, cerium, lanthanum, didymium, erbium and terbium.

Nils Johan Berlin and Marc Delafontaine tried also to separate the crude yttria and found the same substances that Mosander obtained, but Berlin named (1860) the substance giving pink salts erbium and Delafontaine named the substance with the yellow peroxide terbium. This confusion led to several false claims of new elements, such as the mosandrium of J. Lawrence Smith, or thephilippium and decipium of Delafontaine.

[edit]Spectroscopy

There were no further discoveries for 30 years, and the element didymium was listed in the periodic table of elements with a molecular mass of 138. In 1879 Delafontaine used the new physical process of optical-flame spectroscopy, and he found several new spectral lines in didymia. Also in 1879, the new element samarium was isolated by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran from the mineral samarskite.

The samaria earth was further separated by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1886 and a similar result was obtained by Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac by direct isolation from samarskite. They named the element gadolinium after Johan Gadolin, and its oxide was named "gadolinia".

Further spectroscopic analysis between 1886 and 1901 of samaria, yttria, and samarskite by William Crookes, Lecoq de Boisbaudran and Eugène-Anatole Demarçay yielded several new spectroscopic lines that indicated the existence of an unknown element. The fractional crystallization of the oxides then yielded europium in 1901.

In 1839 the third source for rare earths became available. This is a mineral similar to gadolinite, uranotantalum (now called "samarskite"). This mineral from Miass in the southern Ural Mountains was documented by Gustave Rose. The Russian chemist R. Harmann proposed that a new element he called "ilmenium" should be present in this mineral, but later, Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand, Galissard de Marignac, and Heinrich Rose found only tantalum and niobium (columbium) in it.

The exact number of rare earth elements that existed was highly unclear, and a maximum number of 25 was estimated. The use of X-ray spectra (obtained by X-ray crystallography) by Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley made it possible to assign atomic numbers to the elements. Moseley found that the exact number of lanthanides had to be 15 and that element 61 had yet to be discovered.

Using these facts about atomic numbers from X-ray crystallography, Moseley also showed that hafnium (element 72) would not be a rare earth element. Moseley was killed in World War I in 1915, years before hafnium was discovered. Hence, the claim of Georges Urbain that he had discovered element 72 was untrue. Hafnium is an element that lies in the periodic table immediately belowzirconium, and hafnium and zirconium are very similar in their chemical and physical properties.

During the 1940s, Frank Spedding and others in the United States (during the Manhattan Project) developed the chemical ion exchange procedures for separating and purifying the rare earth elements. This method was first applied to the actinides for separating plutonium-239 and neptunium, from uranium, thorium, actinium, and the other actinide rare earths in the materials produced in nuclear reactors. The plutonium-239 was very desirable because it is a fissile material.

The principal sources of rare earth elements are the minerals bastnäsite, monazite, and loparite and the lateritic ion-adsorptionclays. Despite their high relative abundance, rare earth minerals are more difficult to mine and extract than equivalent sources oftransition metals (due in part to their similar chemical properties), making the rare earth elements relatively expensive. Their industrial use was very limited until efficient separation techniques were developed, such as ion exchange, fractional crystallizationand liquid-liquid extraction during the late 1950s and early 1960s.^[9]

[edit]Early classification

Before the time that ion exchange methods and elution were available, the separation of the rare earths was primarily achieved by repeated precipitation or crystallisation. In those days, the first separation was into two main groups, the cerium group earths (scandium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, and samarium) and the yttrium group earths (yttrium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, and lutetium). Europium, gadolinium, and terbium were either considered as a separate group of rare earth elements (the terbium group), or europium was included in the cerium group, and gadoliniun and terbium were included in the yttrium group. The reason for this division arose from the difference in solubility of rare earth double sulfates with sodium and potassium. The sodium double sulfates of the cerium group are difficultly soluble, those of the terbium group slightly, and those of the yttrium group are very soluble.^[10]

[edit]Origin

Rare earth elements are heavier than iron and thus are produced by supernova nucleosynthesis or the s-process in asymptotic giant branch stars. In nature, spontaneous fission of uranium-238 produces trace amounts of radioactive promethium, but most promethium is synthetically produced in nuclear reactors.

Rare earth elements change through time in small quantities (ppm, parts per million), so their proportion can be used forgeochronology and dating fossils.

[edit]Geological distribution

Abundance of elements in the Earth crust per million of Si atoms

Rare earth cerium is actually the 25th most abundant element in the Earth's crust, having 68 parts per million (about as common as copper). Only the highly unstable and radioactive promethium"rare earth" is quite scarce.

The rare earth elements are often found together. The longest-lived isotope of promethium has a half life of 17.7 years, so the element exists in nature in only negligible amounts (approximately 572 g in the entire Earth's crust).^[11]Promethium is one of the two elements that do not have stable (non-radioactive) isotopes and are followed by (i.e. with higher atomic number) stable elements.

Due to lanthanide contraction, yttrium, which is trivalent, is of similar ionic size to dysprosium and its lanthanide neighbors. Due to the relatively gradual decrease in ionic size with increasing atomic number, the rare earth elements have always been difficult to separate. Even with eons of geological time, geochemical separation of the lanthanides has only rarely progressed much farther than a broad separation between light versus heavy lanthanides, otherwise known as the cerium and yttrium earths. This geochemical divide is reflected in the first two rare earths that were discovered, yttria in 1794 and ceria in 1803. As originally found, each comprised the entire mixture of the associated earths. Rare earth minerals, as found, usually are dominated by one group or the other, depending upon which size-range best fits the structural lattice. Thus, among the anhydrous rare earth phosphates, it is the tetragonal mineralxenotime that incorporates yttrium and the yttrium earths, whereas the monoclinic monazite phase incorporates cerium and the cerium earths preferentially. The smaller size of the yttrium group allows it a greater solid solubility in the rock-forming minerals that comprise the Earth's mantle, and thus yttrium and the yttrium earths show less enrichment in the Earth's crust relative to chondritic abundance, than does cerium and the cerium earths. This has economic consequences: large ore bodies of the cerium earths are known around the world, and are being exploited. Corresponding orebodies for yttrium tend to be rarer, smaller, and less concentrated. Most of the current supply of yttrium originates in the "ion adsorption clay" ores of Southern China. Some versions provide concentrates containing about 65% yttrium oxide, with the heavy lanthanides being present in ratios reflecting the Oddo-Harkins rule: even-numbered heavy lanthanides at abundances of about 5% each, and odd-numbered lanthanides at abundances of about 1% each. Similar compositions are found in xenotime or gadolinite.

Well-known minerals containing yttrium include gadolinite, xenotime, samarskite, euxenite, fergusonite, yttrotantalite, yttrotungstite, yttrofluorite (a variety of fluorite), thalenite, yttrialite. Small amounts occur in zircon, which derives its typical yellow fluorescence from some of the accompanying heavy lanthanides. The zirconium mineral eudialyte, such as is found in southern Greenland, contains small but potentially useful amounts of yttrium. Of the above yttrium minerals, most played a part in providing research quantities of lanthanides during the discovery days. Xenotime is occasionally recovered as a byproduct of heavy sand processing, but is not as abundant as the similarly recovered monazite (which typically contains a few percent of yttrium). Uranium ores from Ontario have occasionally yielded yttrium as a byproduct.

Well-known minerals containing cerium and the light lanthanides include bastnäsite, monazite, allanite, loparite, ancylite, parisite,lanthanite, chevkinite, cerite, stillwellite, britholite, fluocerite, and cerianite. Monazite (marine sands from Brazil, India, or Australia; rock from South Africa), bastnäsite (from Mountain Pass, California, or several localities in China), and loparite (Kola Peninsula,Russia) have been the principal ores of cerium and the light lanthanides.

In 2011, Yasuhiro Kato, a geologist at the University of Tokyo who led a study of Pacific Ocean seabed mud, published results indicating the mud could hold rich concentrations of rare earth minerals. The deposits, studied at 78 sites, came from "[h]ot plumes from hydrothermal vents pull[ing] these materials out of seawater and deposit[ing] them on the seafloor, bit by bit, over tens of millions of years. One square patch of metal-rich mud 2.3 kilometers wide might contain enough rare earths to meet most of the global demand for a year, Japanese geologists report July 3 in Nature Geoscience." "I believe that rare earth resources undersea are much more promising than on-land resources," said Kato. "[C]oncentrations of rare earths were comparable to those found in clays mined in China. Some deposits contained twice as much heavy rare earths such as dysprosium, a component of magnets in hybrid car motors."^[12]

[edit]Global rare earth production

Global production 1950–2000

Until 1948, most of the world's rare earths were sourced from placer sand deposits in India and Brazil.^[13] Through the 1950s, South Africa took the status as the world's rare earth source, after large veins of rare earth bearing monazite were discovered there.^[13] Through the 1960s until the 1980s, the Mountain Pass rare earth mine in California was the leading producer. Today, the Indian and South African deposits still produce some rare earth concentrates, but they are dwarfed by the scale of Chinese production. China had produced over 95% of the world's rare earth supply, mostly in Inner Mongolia,^[3]^[14] even though it had only 37% of proven reserves.^[15], although these numbers have since been reported to have slipped to 90% and 23%, respectively, by 2012.^[16]All of the world's heavy rare earths (such as dysprosium) come from Chinese rare earth sources such as the polymetallic Bayan Obo deposit.^[14]^[17] In 2010, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) released a study which found that the United States had 13 million metric tons of rare earth elements.^[18]

New demand has recently strained supply, and there is growing concern that the world may soon face a shortage of the rare earths.^[19] In several years from 2009 worldwide demand for rare earth elements is expected to exceed supply by 40,000 tonnes annually unless major new sources are developed.^[20]

[edit]China

These concerns have intensified due to the actions of China, the predominant supplier.^[21] Specifically, China has announced regulations on exports and a crackdown on smuggling.^[22] On September 1, 2009, China announced plans to reduce its export quota to 35,000 tons per year in 2010–2015, ostensibly to conserve scarce resources and protect the environment.^[23] On October 19, 2010 China Daily, citing an unnamed Ministry of Commerce official, reported that China will "further reduce quotas for rare earth exports by 30 percent at most next year to protect the precious metals from over-exploitation".^[24] At the end of 2010 China announced that the first round of export quotas in 2011 for rare earths would be 14,446 tons which was a 35% decrease from the previous first round of quotas in 2010.^[25] China announced further export quotas on 14 July 2011 for the second half of the year with total allocation at 30,184 tons with total production capped at 93,800 tonnes.^[26] In September 2011 China announced the halt in production of three of its eight major rare earth mines, responsible for almost 40% of China's total rare earth production.^[27] In August 2012, China announced a further 20% reduction in production.^[28]

[edit]Outside of China

As a result of the increased demand and tightening restrictions on exports of the metals from China, some countries are stockpiling rare earth resources.^[29] Searches for alternative sources in Australia, Brazil, Canada, South Africa, Tanzania, Greenland, and theUnited States are ongoing.^[30] Mines in these countries were closed when China undercut world prices in the 1990s, and it will take a few years to restart production as there are many barriers to entry.^[22] One example is the Mountain Pass mine in California, which is projected to reopen in 2011.^[14]^[31] Other significant sites under development outside of China include the Nolans Project in Central Australia, the remote Hoidas Lake project in northern Canada,^[32] and the Mount Weld project in Australia.^[14]^[31]^[33] TheHoidas Lake project has the potential to supply about 10% of the $1 billion of REE consumption that occurs in North America every year.^[34] Vietnam signed an agreement in October 2010 to supply Japan with rare earths^[35] from its northwestern Lai Châu Province.^[36]

Also under consideration for mining are sites such as Thor Lake in the Northwest Territories, various locations in Vietnam,^[14]^[20] and a site in southeast Nebraska in the US, where Quantum Rare Earth Development, a Canadian company, is currently conducting test drilling and economic feasibility studies toward opening a niobium mine.^[37] Additionally, a large deposit of rare earth minerals was recently discovered in Kvanefjeld in southern Greenland.^[38] Pre-feasibility drilling at this site has confirmed significant quantities of black lujavrite, which contains about 1% rare earth oxides (REO).^[39] Adding to potential mine sites, ASX listed Peak Resources announced in February 2012, that their Tanzanian based Ngualla project contained not only the 6th largest deposit by tonnage outside of China, but also the highest grade of rare earth elements of the 6.^[40]

In early 2011, Australian mining company, Lynas, was reported to be "hurrying to finish" a US$230 million rare earth refinery on the eastern coast of Malaysia's industrial port of Kuantan. The plant would refine ore — Lanthanide concentrate from the Mount Weldmine in Australia. The ore would be trucked to Fremantle and transported by container ship to Kuantan. However, the Malaysian authorities confirmed that as of October 2011, Lynas was not given any permit to import any rare earth ore into Malaysia. On February 2nd 2012, the Malaysian AELB (Atomic Energy Licensing Board) recommended that Lynas be issued a Temporary Operating License (TOL) subject to completion of a number of conditions. On April 3 2012, Lynas announced to the Malaysian media that these conditions had been met, and was now waiting on the issuance of the licence. Within two years, Lynas was said to expect the refinery to be able to meet nearly a third of the world's demand for rare earth materials, not counting China."^[41] The Kuantan development brought renewed attention to the Malaysian town of Bukit Merah in Perak, where a rare-earth mine operated by a Mitsubishi Chemical subsidiary, Asian Rare Earth, closed in 1992 and left continuing environmental and health concerns.^[42] In mid-2011, after protests, Malaysian government restrictions on the Lynas plant were announced. At that time, citing subscription-only Dow Jones Newswire reports, a Barrons report said the Lynas investment was $730 million, and the projected share of the global market it would fill put at "about a sixth."^[43] An independent review was initiated by Malaysian Government and UN and conducted by IAEA between 29 May and 3 June 2011 to address concerns of radioactive hazards. The IAEA team was not able to identify any non-compliance with international radiation safety standards.^[44]

Significant quantities of rare earth oxides are found in tailings accumulated from 50 years of uranium ore, shale and loparite mining at Sillamäe, Estonia.^[45] Due to the rising prices of rare earths, extraction of these oxides has become economically viable. The country currently exports around 3,000 tonnes per year, representing around 2% of world production.^[46]

Nuclear reprocessing is another potential source of rare earth or any other elements. Nuclear fission of uranium or plutoniumproduces a full range of elements, including all their isotopes. However, due to the radioactivity of many of these isotopes, it is unlikely that extracting them from the mixture can be done safely and economically.

In May 2012, researchers from two prevalent universities in Japan announced that they had discovered rare earths in Ehime Prefecture, Japan. ^[47] [2] In 2012, Japanese scientists discovered about 6.8 million tons of rare earth elements near the island ofMinami-Tori-Shima, enough to supply Japan's current consumption for over 200 years. Around 90% of the world's production of REE comes from China, and Japan imports 60% of that.^[48]

[edit]Recycling

Another recently developed source of rare earths is electronic waste and other wastes that have significant rare earth components. New advances in recycling technology have made extraction of rare earths from these materials more feasible, and recycling plants are currently operating in Japan, where there is an estimated 300,000 tons of rare earths stored in unused electronics.^[49] In France, the Rhodia group is setting up two factories, in La Rochelle and Saint-Fons, that will produce 200 tons a year of rare earths from used fluorescent lamps, magnets and batteries.^[50]^[51]

[edit]Environmental considerations

Mining, refining, and recycling of rare earths have serious environmental consequences if not properly managed. A particular hazard is mildly radioactive slurry tailings resulting from the common occurrence of thorium and uranium in rare earth element ores.^[52]Additionally, toxic acids are required during the refining process.^[15] Improper handling of these substances can result in extensive environmental damage. In May 2010, China announced a major, five-month crackdown on illegal mining in order to protect the environment and its resources. This campaign is expected to be concentrated in the South,^[53] where mines – commonly small, rural, and illegal operations – are particularly prone to releasing toxic wastes into the general water supply.^[14]^[54] However, even the major operation in Baotou, in Inner Mongolia, where much of the world's rare earth supply is refined, has caused major environmental damage.^[15]

The Bukit Merah mine in Malaysia has been the focus of a US$100 million cleanup which is proceeding in 2011. "Residents blamed a rare earth refinery for birth defects and eight leukemia cases within five years in a community of 11,000 — after many years with no leukemia cases." Seven of the leukemia victims died. After having accomplished the hilltop entombment of 11,000 truckloads of radioactively contaminated material, the project is expected to entail in summer, 2011, the removal of "more than 80,000 steel barrels of radioactive waste to the hilltop repository." One of Mitsubishi's contractors for the cleanup is GeoSyntec, an Atlanta-based firm.^[42] Osamu Shimizu, a director of Asian Rare Earth, "said the company might have sold a few bags of calcium phosphate fertilizer on a trial basis as it sought to market byproducts" in reply to a former resident of Bukit Merah who said, "The cows that ate the grass [grown with the fertilizer] all died."^[55]

In May 2011, after the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, widespread protests took place in Kuantan over the Lynas refinery and radioactive waste from it. The ore to be processed has very low levels of thorium, and Lynas founder and chief executive Nicholas Curtis said "There is absolutely no risk to public health." T. Jayabalan, a doctor who says he has been monitoring and treating patients affected by the Mitsubishi plant, "is wary of Lynas's assurances. The argument that low levels of thorium in the ore make it safer doesn't make sense, he says, because radiation exposure is cumulative."^[55] Construction of the facility has been halted until an independent United Nations IAEA panel investigation is completed, which is expected by the end of June 2011.^[56] New restrictions were announced by the Malaysian government in late June.^[43]

IAEA panel investigation is completed and no construction has been halted. Lynas is on budget and on schedule to start producing 2011. The IAEA report has concluded in a report issued on Thursday June 2011 said it did not find any instance of "any non-compliance with international radiation safety standards" in the project.^[57]

[edit]Geo-political considerations

China has officially cited resource depletion and environmental concerns as the reasons for a nationwide crackdown on its rare earth mineral production sector.^[27] However, non-environmental motives have also been imputed to China's rare earth policy.^[15] According to The Economist, "Slashing their exports of rare-earth metals...is all about moving Chinese manufacturers up the supply chain, so they can sell valuable finished goods to the world rather than lowly raw materials."^[58] One possible example is the division of General Motors which deals with miniaturized magnet research, which shut down its US office and moved its entire staff to China in 2006 ^[59] (it should be noted that China's export quota only applies to the metal but not products made from these metals such as magnets).

It was reported,^[60] but officially denied,^[61] that China instituted an export ban on shipments of rare earth oxides (but not alloys) to Japan on 22 September 2010, in response to the detainment of a Chinese fishing boat captain by the Japanese Coast Guard.^[62] On September 2, 2010, a few days before the fishing boat incident, The Economist reported that "China...in July announced the latest in a series of annual export reductions, this time by 40% to precisely 30,258 tonnes."^[63]

The United States Department of Energy in its 2010 Critical Materials Strategy report identified dysprosium as the element that was most critical in terms of import reliance.^[64]

A 2011 report issued by the U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Department of the Interior, “China’s Rare-Earth Industry," outlines industry trends within China and examines national policies that may guide the future of the country's production. The report notes that China’s lead in the production of rare-earth minerals has accelerated over the past two decades. In 1990, China accounted for only 27% of such minerals. In 2009, world production was 132,000 metric tons; China produced 129,000 of those tons. According to the report, recent patterns suggest that China will slow the export of such materials to the world: “Owing to the increase in domestic demand, the Government has gradually reduced the export quota during the past several years.” In 2006, China allowed 47 domestic rare-earth producers and traders and 12 Sino-foreign rare-earth producers to export. Controls have since tightened annually; by 2011, only 22 domestic rare-earth producers and traders and 9 Sino-foreign rare-earth producers were authorized. The government’s future policies will likely keep in place strict controls: “According to China’s draft rare-earth development plan, annual rare-earth production may be limited to between 130,000 and 140,000 [metric tons] during the period from 2009 to 2015. The export quota for rare-earth products may be about 35,000 [metric tons] and the Government may allow 20 domestic rare-earth producers and traders to export rare earths.”^[65]

The United States Geological Survey is actively surveying southern Afghanistan for rare earth deposits under the protection of United States military forces. Since 2009 the USGS has conducted remote sensing surveys as well as fieldwork to verify Soviet claims that volcanic rocks containing rare earth metals exist in Helmand province near the village of Khanneshin. The USGS study team has located a sizable area of rocks in the center of an extinct volcano containing light rare earth elements including cerium and neodymium. It has mapped 1.3 million metric tons of desirable rock, or about 10 years of supply at current demand levels. The Pentagon has estimated its value at about $7.4 billion.^[66]

[edit]Rare earth pricing

Rare earth elements are not exchange-traded in the same way that precious (for instance, gold and silver) or non-ferrous metals (such as nickel, tin, copper, and aluminium) are. Instead they are sold on the private market, which makes their prices difficult to monitor and track. However, prices are published periodically on websites such as mineralprices.com.^[67] The 17 elements are not usually sold in their pure form, but instead are distributed in mixtures of varying purity, e.g. "Neodymium metal ≥ 99.5%".^[67] As such, pricing can vary based on the quantity and quality required by the end user's application.

[edit]See also

Geology portal

[edit]References

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^ "Hoidas Lake Project". Retrieved 2008-09-24.
^ "Rare earths supply deal between Japan and Vietnam". BBC News. 31 October 2010.
^ "Vietnam signs major nuclear pacts". AlJazeera. 31 October 2010. Retrieved 31 October 2010.
^ "High-tech buried treasure.". Retrieved 2010-05-05.
^ Greenland "Rare Earth Elements at Kvanefjeld, Greenland", Retrieved on 2010-11-10.
^ Greenland "New Multi-Element Targets and Overall Resource Potential", Retrieved on 2010-11-10.
^ Peak Resources – Maiden Resource, Ngualla Rare Earth Project, ASX Announcement, 29th February 2012
^ Bradsher, Keith, "Taking a Risk for Rare Earths", The New York Times, March 8, 2011 (March 9, 2011 p. B1 NY ed.). Retrieved 2011-03-09.
^ ^a ^b Bradsher, Keith, "Mitsubishi Quietly Cleans Up Its Former Refinery", The New York Times, March 8, 2011 (March 9, 2011 p. B4 NY ed.). Retrieved 2011-03-09.
^ ^a ^b Coleman, Murray,"Rare Earth ETF Jumps As Plans To Break China's Hold Suffer Setback", Barrons blog, June 30, 2011 1:52 PM ET. Retrieved 2011=-6-30.
^ Report of the International Review Mission on the Radiation Safety Aspects of a Proposed Rare Earths Processing Facility (Lynas Project). (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-09-27.
^ Rofer, Cheryl K.; Tõnis Kaasik (2000). Turning a Problem Into a Resource: Remediation and Waste Management at the Sillamäe Site, Estonia. Volume 28 of NATO science series: Disarmament technologies. Springer. p. 229. ISBN 978-0-7923-6187-9.
^ Anneli Reigas (2010-11-30). "Estonia's rare earth break China's market grip". AFP. Retrieved 2010-12-01.
^ "Japan Discovers Domestic Rare Earths Reserve". BrightWire.
^ Westlake, Adam. "Scientists in Japan discover rare earths in Pacific Ocean east of Tokyo" Japan Daily Press, 29 June 2012. Retrieved: 29 June 2012.
^ Tabuchi, Hiroko. "Japan Recycles Minerals From Used Electronics". New York Times. October 5, 2010.
^ Rhodia press releasehttp://www.rhodia.com/en/news_center/news_releases/Recycle_rare_earths_031011.tcm
^ [1]
^ Bourzac, Katherine. "Can the U.S. Rare-Earth Industry Rebound?" Technology Review. October 29, 2010.
^ Govt cracks whip on rare earth mining. China Daily, May 21, 2010. Accessed June 3rd, 2010.
^ Y, Lee. "South China Villagers Slam Pollution From Rare Earth Mine." 22 February 2008. RFA English Website. 16 March 2008
^ ^a ^b Lee, Yoolim, "Malaysia Rare Earths in Largest Would-Be Refinery Incite Protest", Bloomberg Markets Magazine, May 31, 2011 5:00 PM ET.
^ "UN investigation into Malaysia rare-earth plant safety",BBC, 30 May 2011 05:52 ET.
^ IAEA Submits Lynas Report to Malaysian Government. Iaea.org (2011-06-29). Retrieved on 2011-09-27.
^ "The Difference Engine: More precious than gold". The Economist September 17, 2010.
^ C, Cox. "Rare earth innovation: the silent shift to China". 16 November 2006. The Anchor House: Research on Rare Earth Elements Accessed 29 February 2008
^ Bradsher, Keith (2010-09-22). "Amid Tension, China Blocks Vital Exports to Japan". The New York Times Company. Retrieved 22 September 2010.
^ James T. Areddy, David Fickling And Norihiko Shirouzu (2010-09-23). "China Denies Halting Rare-Earth Exports to Japan". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 22 September 2010.
^ Backlash over the alleged China curb on metal exports,Daily Telegraph, London, 29 Aug 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-30.
^ "Rare earths: Digging in" The Economist September 2, 2010
^ Mills, Mark P. "Tech's Mineral Infrastructure – Time to Emulate China's Rare Earth Policies." Forbes, 1 January 2010.
^ "U.S. Geological Survey: China’s Rare-Earth Industry". Journalist's Resource.org.
^ Simpson, S.: Afghanistan's Buried Riches, "Scientific American", October 2011
^ ^a ^b Price list on mineralprices.com.

[edit]External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Rare earth elements

Tabuchi, Hiroko (5 October 2010). "Japan Recycles Rare Earth Minerals From Used Electronics". The New York Times.
Kan, Michael (7 October 2010). "Common gadgets may be affected by shortage of rare earths". New Zealand PC World Magazine. Retrieved 6 October 2010.
Auslin, Michael (13 October 2010). "Japan's Rare-Earth Jolt". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 13 October 2010.
Aston, Adam (15 October 2010). "China's Rare-Earth Monopoly". Technology Review (MIT). Retrieved 17 October 2010.
Hurst, Cindy (March 2010). "China's Rare Earth Elements Industry: What Can the West Learn?". Institute for the Analysis of Global Security (IAGS). Retrieved 18 October 2010.
"Rare earth industry develops outside of China". ipmd.net. 8 February 2011.
Rare earths mining: China's 21st Century gold rush, BBC News June 2010 infographic examining China's role in the rare earths market.

Post-transition metal

Metalloid

Othernonmetal

Halogen

Noble gas

Unknown chemical properties

Large version

[show] v t e Periodic tables

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_earths

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

DEPARTMENT OF ATOMIC ENERGY

RAJYA SABHA

UNSTARRED QUESTION NO.628

TO BE ANSWERED ON 16.08.2012

URANIUM RESOURCES IN THE COUNTRY

628. SHRI PALVAI GOVARDHAN REDDY:

Will the PRIME MINISTER be pleased to state:

(a) whether it is a fact that Andhra Pradesh has the highest uranium resources in the country;

(b) if so, the details thereof, district-wise;

(d) what efforts Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research is making to explore the same?

ANSWER

THE MINISTER OF STATE FOR PERSONNEL, PUBLIC GRIEVANCES & PENSIONS AND PRIME MINISTER’S OFFICE (SHRI V. NARAYANASAMY) :

(a) Yes Sir. The survey and exploration for uranium carried out by Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD), a constituent unit of Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) has led to the identification of 93,492 tonnes of in-situ uranium oxide (U3O8) in parts of Andhra Pradesh as on June 2012, which forms 50.69% of the total in-situ reserves identified so far in India.

(b) The details of in-situ reserves of uranium identified in Andhra Pradesh are as given below:

District

Name of the deposit

Uranium resources established (tonnes U3O8)

Cuddapah

Tummalapalle -Rachakuntapalle

72,181

Nalgonda

Lambapur

1,450

Peddagattu

7,585

Chitrial

9,515

Guntur

Koppunuru

2,761

Total

93,492

..2

-2-

(c) The uranium mineralisation at Tummalapalle – Rachakuntapalle was discovered in 1986. The mineralisation at Lambapur was discovered in 1991. The mineralisation at Peddagattu, Chitrial and Koppunuru were discovered in 1993, 1995 and 1997 respectively.

(d) AMD has already made exploration to prove additional resources in the area in extension blocks.

*****http://www.dae.nic.in/writereaddata/rsus628.pdf

Milestone 2002-2003: An Overview

Thorium Utilization

For sustainable development, thorium utilization is the long-term objective of the Indian nuclear programme. The efforts in this direction have resulted in the successful design and operation of 30 kilowatt reactor Kamini at Kalpakkam. The technologies relating to the production of uranium-233 have been established, and thorium fuel bundles have also been successfully used in the reactors for flux flattening. These successes are now culminating towards the development of a 300 MWe Advanced Heavy Water Reactor by BARC.

During the year of report, following were the developments in the field of Thorium Utilization:

Kalpakkam Mini Reactor (KAMINI)

At Kalpakkam, KAMINI reactor continued to operate at a nominal power of 30 kW for neutron radiography of various materials.

Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

At Trombay, the engineering development activities related to Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) Project progressed further, and the project report for setting up of a 300 MWe AHWR was completed.

Critical Facility

The civil works of Critical Facility for conducting reactor physics experiment for AHWR and 500 MWe PHWRs continued and fabrication of critical equipment for this project reached advanced stage.

Thorium Fuel Cycle

Thorium Mining

Mining and processing of thorium and rare earths containing ores, found on the coastal areas of Kerala and Orissa, is done by the Indian Rare Earths Ltd. (IREL). IREL achieved an all time high production of ilmenite. OSCOM Unit at Chhattarpur, Orissa, achieved 90% of its capacity and achieved production of 1.96 lakh tons of ilmenite. The Company launched its first phase of capacity expansion for mineral processing at its plants in Chavara and Manavalakurichi. It also took up the projects for zirconium hydroxide and recovery of rare elements from phosphoric acid.

A view of Synthetic Rutile Plant and Mineral Separation Plant at OSCOM

Fuel Reprocessing

To separate U-233 from irradiated thorium fuel on a plant scale, a reprocessing facility at Trombay (Uranium Thorium Separation Facility) became operational in August 2002. This is a vital link in the thorium fuel cycle activities.

Advanced Reactor Technology Development

BARC has been developing the compact high temperature reactor (CHTR) for use as power pack in isolated areas, and the accelerator driven sub critical system (ADSS), which is poised to provide an effective solution to nuclear waste management. At BARC the work on high temperature reactor continued and progress was made in the design of a small compact thorium based fuel high temperature reactor (CHTR) with lead cooling to generate about 40-50 kWe of electricity. Detailed analysis on the development of Accelerator Driven Sub-Critical Systems (ADSS) progressed and broad road map for this programme was identified.

Radiation Technology & Applications

Research Reactors

The research reactor programme of DAE provides R&D support to nuclear power programme produces radioisotopes, and provides facilities for research. The research reactors Apsara and Dhruva of BARC continued to operate safely and efficiently These reactors were extensively used for basic and applied research, isotope production, material testing and manpower training. For the first time, Plutonium-236, radiotracer useful in environmental and biological studies, was successfully produced at Trombay.

Confectionery grade groundnut variety TPG-41 released for commercial cultivation

Nuclear Agriculture

The nuclear agriculture programme of DAE covers development of high yielding crop seeds, fertilizer and pesticide related studies, radiation processing of food items and other areas. In the field of crop improvement, BARC recorded a major success with the release of a new variety of groundnut mutant TPG-41 for commercial cultivation. This large seeded confectionery was developed by BARC in collaboration with the Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Maharashtra. So far 23 different crop varieties, including this variety, have been developed at Trombay. At all India level, 4 blackgram (Urid) varieties account for over 50% of the total national breeder seed indent of all the blackgram varieties taken together. Groundnut variety TAG-24 is very popular and accounts for 11% of the national breeder seed indent.

Radiation Processing of Food

Based on the decades of the research done in BARC, in radiation processing of food items, the advantages of preservation of food by radiation processing technology have been established. During the report period, a major event in the field of food processing was the commissioning of the 10 tonne/hr facility, “KRUSHAK” - Krushi Utpadan Sanrakshan Kendra). The facility will provide radiation processing of onions at Lasalgaon, Nashik District, Maharashtra. The Cobalt-60 strength of the Radiation Processing Plant at Vashi, Navi Mumbai, was raised to 207 kCi (kilo curie) enhancing the processing capacity of the plant to 6 MT per day. This plant, which radio processed spices, has been proving a boon to spice exporters.

http://www.dae.nic.in/?q=node/275

REM

Thursday, October 4, 2012

Rare earth complex of India -- containing thorium, the strategic nuclear fuel

India boosts rare earth production

HT

TIS

TVM

TVV

TVP

I - Premium

II - Standard

Rare earth element

Contents

[edit]List

[edit]Abbreviations

[edit]Discovery and early history

[edit]Spectroscopy

[edit]Early classification

[edit]Origin

[edit]Geological distribution

[edit]Global rare earth production

[edit]China

[edit]Outside of China

[edit]Recycling

[edit]Environmental considerations

[edit]Geo-political considerations

[edit]Rare earth pricing

[edit]See also

[edit]References

[edit]External links

Milestone 2002-2003: An Overview